Admin/ki-ingestion
1
0
Fork 0
Code Issues Pull Requests Actions Packages Projects Releases Wiki Activity

Add document

Browse Source
This commit is contained in:
Admin
2026-06-13 13:58:51 +00:00
parent b460561bb9
commit 89b4f4e1ce
1 changed files with 791 additions and 0 deletions
Download Patch File Download Diff File Expand all files Collapse all files
Best-Practice--Bitumen-Emulsion-and-Foamed.md
+791
View File
@@ -0,0 +1,791 @@
---
typ: Bitumen-Emulsion and Foamed Materials Laboratory Processing Report
titel: Best Practice: Bitumen-Emulsion and Foamed
datum: Not provided in the text
sicherheit: mittel
---
# Best Practice: Bitumen-Emulsion and Foamed
BEST PRACTICE: BITUMEN-EMULSION AND FOAMED
BITUMEN MATERIALS LABORATORY PROCESSING
S V KEKWICK
CSIR Transportek, PO Box 395, Pretoria 0001
ABSTRACT
Although accelerated laboratory curing of bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen treated
materials is undertaken widely, there is not an accepted standard procedure.
A major contributing factor to this situation is undoubtedly the complex composition of
these materials, which can include both active and inactive fillers such as lime, cement, fly
ash, etc., as well as the bituminous binder and parent material. The complexities of the
various chemical reactions and interactions that will occur during the treatment process
are poorly understood at best.
While an accelerated curing regime should not alter these fundamental processes from
those that would occur in field conditions, given the variations in composition of these
treated materials in terms of specific composition and quantities, there is concern that the
influence of accelerated curing is not fully understood. Consequently there is a significant
possibility that laboratory cured specimens have strength or other characteristics that are
dissimilar to the field materials that they supposedly represent.
This paper, based on a review of past practice and fundamental behaviour, identifies what
are regarded as most appropriate laboratory procedures for these types of treated
materials to ensure that laboratory testing should reliably characterise field properties.
1. BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
The technique of applying small quantities of diluted bitumen-emulsion to unbound
roadbase materials in South Africa developed recognition some 30 years ago, primarily as
an aid in achieving specified densities when this was otherwise difficult or not possible with
the untreated material (Marais & Tait, 1989; Bergh, 2005). Anionic emulsion was adopted
at that time as being relatively slow breaking, in order to avoid potential problems of the
emulsified bitumen reverting to its normal bitumen type too quickly. Early experience
established that more rapid breaking could make any of the mixing, placing and
compaction processes unworkable. In some cases, however, it was also found that the
emulsion did not break sufficiently quickly and this led to a small amount of cement being
introduced to promote the breaking process.
Although initially used therefore as a short term construction aid, subsequent qualitative
observations from roads constructed using bitumen-emulsion treatment of the base
indicated that the longer term performance was also considerably enhanced.
Rutting, ravelling and cracking (the most common distress types normally associated with
unbound, bitumen-bound and cement-bound roadbases, and consequently providing the
point of reference) were generally far less significant to non-existent compared with what
Proceedings of the 24 Southern African Transport Conference (SATC 2005) 11 – 13 July 2005
ISBN Number: 1-920-01712-7 Pretoria, South Africa
Produced by: Document Transformation Technologies cc Conference organised by: Conference Planners
th
136
might have been expected if the same parent material had been used in any of these
conventional applications.
Quantitative monitoring confirmed that the bitumen-emulsion treated roadbases did in fact
have improved engineering properties compared with the untreated parent material
(primarily increased stiffness and strength characteristics), which would clearly contribute
to the performance enhancement. More important, it was found that the changes in these
material properties continued over time, and early work suggested that this could take
place over 6 months to 2 years before a final cured state and constant engineering
properties would be achieved (Marais & Tait, 1989).
Thus it appeared that, from what had originally started as a construction expedient, a new
and very promising technique for improved roadbase performance had been found.
Sabita (South African Bitumen Association), recognising the potential of this approach,
sponsored various studies on the application of bitumen-emulsion to roadbase
construction from the 1980s culminating in guidelines for industry in order to promote more
widespread usage (Sabita, 1993, 1999).
More recently, with the burgeoning need for cost-effective methods of pavement
rehabilitation, the technique of foaming bitumen has been developed in conjunction with
purpose-built recycling milling machines primarily to effect in situ treatment of existing
pavement layers. In South Africa the approach draws heavily on the bitumen-emulsion
technique, in terms of residual bitumen application rates and possible inclusion of cement
or other active filler.
Considerable research effort has gone into foamed bitumen treatment since the mid-1990s
in South Africa, and industry guidelines on current best practice were released in 2002
(Asphalt Academy, 2002). This document, mainly sponsored by Gauteng Department of
Public Transport, Roads and Works (Gautrans) and supported by Sabita, has also
provided an impetus for unifying and updating the earlier guidelines for bitumen-emulsion
applications. A draft version is under review pending clarification of certain critical areas
that are as yet insufficiently addressed from our current knowledge base. Some additional
work is therefore being undertaken to augment the knowledge base in those areas for both
bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen applications.
The study that forms the basis for this paper (Kekwick, 2004) arose from the specific need
to provide guidance on laboratory curing methods most appropriate to evaluating the
potential use of bitumen-emulsion or foamed bitumen for a given parent material. The
objective of this project was to identify the most appropriate curing method(s) to ensure
that laboratory testing should reliably characterise the engineering properties of the treated
material.
While the previous guidelines gave laboratory curing recommendations, it had become
clear that these did not provide a consistent basis for evaluating the treated material so
that practitioners were finding disparities between laboratory testing and subsequent field
performance.
A major contributing factor to this situation is undoubtedly the complex composition of
these materials, which can include both active and inactive fillers such as lime, cement, fly
ash, etc., as well as the bituminous binder and parent material. The complexity of the
various chemical reactions and interactions that occur during the treatment process is
137
poorly understood at best, and there is continuing debate on the exact processes that lead
to the observed long-term changes in engineering properties.
The main concern was that the influence of accelerated curing on these processes is not
known. Consequently there was a significant possibility that laboratory cured specimens
have strength or other characteristics that are dissimilar to the field materials that they
supposedly represent.
The study, in addressing the issue of laboratory curing, found it essential to place curing in
the broader context of meaningful laboratory evaluation of these types of materials.
It should be noted from the outset that the findings and recommendations are specifically
for typical applications in South Africa. These mixes can be broadly described as having
residual bitumen contents of 1 to 2% by mass, and will often include a cement addition of
up to 1%.
This approach can be considered uniquely South African, based on the earliest usage of
bitumen-emulsion for roadbase construction in this country as outlined in the foregoing,
and there is now wider interest largely arising from increasing international exposure. In
contrast, broader international practice with bitumen-emulsions in road construction has
tended to remain focussed on surfacings (including spray applications, surface dressings,
slurry seals and surface courses) having relatively high residual bitumen contents and for
which medium- to fast-breaking cationic emulsion is widely used.
2. CURRENT LABORATORY CURING PRACTICES
The two most recent national guidelines for bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen
treatments (Sabita, 1999 & Asphalt Academy, 2002 respectively) can be regarded as de
facto benchmarks for current local practice.
Two laboratory curing methods are recommended for bitumen-emulsion treated materials:
curing in the moulds for 24 hours at ambient temperature, followed by 48 hours curing at
40°C (if optimum moisture content is less than 8 per cent), or 45 hours at 60°C (if the
optimum moisture content is greater than 8 per cent). It also alternatively proposes that
specimens can be cured for 7 days at ambient temperature (when cement has been
added) or 28 days at ambient temperature (when no cement has been added).
For foamed bitumen treatments, the recommended curing regime is 24 hours in the mould
and 72 hours at 40°C. In this case specimens are cured in plastic bags with the intention of
simulating equilibrium moisture content on completion of curing, and it is anticipated that
this will represent approximately 6 months site curing.
As noted in the introduction, there have been concerns that using these curing methods in
evaluating materials for potential treatment do not, in some cases, provide results
consistent with field observation of performance. In other words the link between
laboratory test and field may be unreliable and therefore casts doubt on the initial selection
process and subsequent mix design. This is clearly unacceptable to both clients and
practitioners.
An indication of the lack of conformity regarding local laboratory curing practices can be
gleaned from the recent Capsa’04 conference. While Bondietti et al (2004) followed the
Sabita curing recommendations for bitumen-emulsion (1999), their study included a
comparison with ambient curing, from which it was found that unconfined compression test
(UCS) results from the accelerated curing regime differed from those using ambient curing.
138
In their study of the role of fillers in both bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen treated
materials, Hodgkinson & Visser (2004) cured for 24 hours in the mould at ambient
temperature, followed by 72 hours at 60°C. In an evaluation of which of these treatment
types would be most appropriate for cold recycling a section of the N7, Jenkins et al (2004)
adopted curing of 72 hours at 40°C in sealed plastic bags.
For their study into indirect tensile strength (ITS) and UCS test protocols for foamed
bitumen treated materials, Houston & Long (2004) adopted various curing regimes,
including 72 hours in the mould at 40°C, and 24 hours at ambient temperature followed by
48 hours in sealed plastic bags at 40°C.
Further afield, despite differences in specific usage, the situation is similarly unclear
regarding laboratory curing of cold mix bituminous applications.
The objective of the fairly recent major European OPTEL project (Optimisation of slow-
setting cationic bituminous emulsions for the construction and maintenance of roads, Potti
et al, 2002) was “to deepen knowledge on the manufacture of emulsions and cold
bituminous mixes so as to use it in a rational way within improved design methods”.
In this case an underlying rationale was to look at the influence of both temperature and
humidity on the rate of moisture departure from laboratory specimens. Moisture content
change and compressive strength were monitored using three temperature/relative
humidity combinations: 18ºC/50%, 50ºC/50% and 50ºC/10%. It was reported that the
findings raised further questions related to probable site behaviour, including the manner
in which free water was held within the material, and the phenomena governing the
increase in cohesion/strength especially as the minimum moisture content is approached.
On these last two issues, it was concluded that temperature and rheological behaviour of
the bitumen would have an influence, thus leading to the finding that it is probably more
realistic to accelerate water departure by humidity reduction rather than temperature
increase.
While the curing study was just one component of the project as a whole, after 300 man-
months effort over a three and a half year period involving seven industrial and academic
partners, and drawing on the specialist knowledge of the consortium partners, no specific
hard recommendations on curing were made and it was left open to the need for further
work.
Significantly, this was concluded without any consideration of the probable additional
complexities of incorporating active filler as is commonly the case in South Africa.
For practical purposes then, the OPTEL study duly confirms that there is no established
standard European procedure for curing of bitumen-emulsion treated materials, and this is
further corroborated by the comprehensive study of Brown and Needham (2000).
In this case the fundamentals of emulsion breaking and mixture curing when cement was
incorporated were studied, thus being more aligned with South African practice, although a
slow setting cationic emulsion was used. Curing and testing were undertaken at 20ºC and
50% relative humidity after specimen extraction from the moulds after 16 hours.
Even at this relatively low temperature, presumably regarded as more representative of
UK conditions, the stiffness moduli of all emulsion treated mixes increased steadily with
time. For these high quality mixes the effect of cement inclusion was distinct with the
stiffnesses, and rate of stiffness increase, being significantly higher with increase in
139
cement. More significantly, in the case of the cement-treated hot mix, there was no
practical change in stiffness regardless of cement content.
Attempts to determine whether any standard laboratory curing practices were used in
other countries, such as the United States/Canada or Australia/New Zealand, were equally
conclusive in that there seemed no conformity.
The only claim found for a complete mix design system for cold mixes was in fact from
Norway (Jostein, 2000), and in this case the laboratory curing regime (applied to both
treatment types) would be 7 days (168 hours) oven drying at 40°C. An alternative in the
event of lack of time (and subject to client approval) would be 72 hours at 60°C. However it
would appear that these mixes would not include cement addition.
In the case of foamed bitumen, Jenkins (2000) provides a comprehensive overview of past
curing methods adopted by various researchers between 1970 and 1994. An indication of
the various approaches is listed below, together with the nominal field cure period
considered to be represented if defined:
• 24 hours @ ambient in mould for short term simulation
• 24 hours @ ambient in mould, 24 hours @ 40°C ≡ 7 – 14 days
• 24 hours @ ambient in mould, 72 hours @ 40°C ≡ 30 days
• 24 hours @ 38°C ≡ 7 days
• 72 hours @ 23°C
• 72 hours @ 60°C ≡ construction period + early life
• 72 hours @ 60°C ≡ 23 to 200 days
• 72 hours @ 60°C ≡ 1 year simulation
• 72 hours @ 60°C, 72 hours @ 24°C
• 240 hours (10 days) ambient, 50 hours @ 60°C
While effort has been made to relate the laboratory curing regime to field condition in these
cases, it is still readily apparent and of great significance (particularly from the 72
hour/60°C regimes), that prevailing local field curing conditions differ greatly.
3. WHERE ARE WE NOW?
The foregoing serves simply to inform that there is considerable confusion both here and
overseas, even after several decades experience in this country with our unique bitumen-
emulsion application to roadbases, and longer elsewhere (Europe, especially) with their
particular road applications.
Clearly, part of the problem must be that the aim of the laboratory curing process is not
consistently defined (if defined at all). Is it to simulate early life/construction conditions,
longer-term (say 6 to 12 month) conditions, or the ultimate condition when engineering
properties are constant (if such a condition exists)? And what would be the most
meaningful choice?
However, laboratory curing is viewed as only one component in a far larger problem when
attempting to develop any rational evaluation method for these particular types of cold mix
materials.
Another part of the problem, hinted at earlier, stems from lack of any clear understanding
of the processes involved when such small quantities of additives (primarily bitumen, as
emulsion or foam, but possibly other active filler particularly cement) can have a
140
disproportionately large, and beneficial, effect. While it was originally attributed to
increased densities, as was aimed for and achieved in the original applications, there is
ostensibly other activity taking place that leads to the observed longer term improvements
in engineering properties. Any appraisal of the well-documented actions/reactions of the
individual component materials in isolation does not seem to tally with the observed
behaviour.
While it is well understood that cement will contribute a longer term increase in strength
and stiffness in conventional applications, the rate and degree of improvement do not
seem to readily match observed changes in the bitumen-emulsion treated materials. It is
also not clear whether the long-term changes in the field are comparable in cases where
cement has not been incorporated.
It must also be emphasised that the inclusion of up to 1% cement, say, for a typical cold
mix application
but without any bitumen being added should be regarded as highly unlikely
to provide any action remotely comparable with that observed from the cold mix
application, and would certainly not be regarded as good practice.
Still another part of the problem is viewed as arising from the relatively small quantities of
additives involved. Development of stabilisation techniques to improve road construction
materials (primarily using bitumen or cement) has been based on relatively high additive
quantities, say 4% by mass or more. The selection of these stabiliser quantities is
governed by achieving certain key engineering properties in laboratory tests, essentially
strength and durability requirements, intended to ensure long-term serviceability will be
achieved and minimise the risk of premature failure.
When such additives are applied at these levels, firstly, it is relatively easy to achieve a
homogeneous mix (for practical purposes) in the field and the laboratory. Better graded
parent material will normally require the lower additive contents, and additive content tends
to increase for poorer graded material to achieve target properties. Parent material in most
current South African cold mix applications for roadbase construction is generally likely to
be considered relatively poor (in terms of grading, as well as possibly other properties). As
a result it will be recognised that mix homogeneity is likely to be far more difficult to
achieve in such applications with low additive contents.
Secondly, it is intuitively recognised that the degree of compaction achieved is likely to
have a significant influence on the intimacy of the binding agent with the parent material in
available voids, and also on the structure of the binder matrix within the void space. With
the higher binder contents associated with stabilisation applications, while these factors
will have some influence, it can be assumed that reasonable consistency of void filling and
matrix structure is obtained as reflected in consistency of test results. It can be conjectured
that this would be attributable to a relatively large portion of the available voids being filled
by the binder. However, in the cold mix applications under discussion, this will not be the
case and it is considered very likely that binder matrix development will be relatively
sensitive to variation in compaction.
Now it is well established that, apart from temperature and humidity, each of the following
has some influence on the field curing rate:
• mix moisture content after compaction;
• specific surface area and void content after compaction (grading);
• type of aggregate (specifically mineralogy and porosity/absorption);
• type and quantity of bituminous material;
141
• type and quantity of active filler if used (usually cement and/or lime);
• compaction method;
• layer sealing and sub-surface drainage conditions.
It will be readily appreciated that these are the factors that will influence the development
of the binder matrix: proximity of active matrix ingredients, attraction to and coating of
parent material, inherent speed of reaction, and constraints to moisture movement. It will
further be noted that each of these will be uniquely project specific.
If it is then acknowledged that, regardless of the exact nature of the internal processes
involved, the particular bitumen cold mix applications used in South Africa have properties
that change (improve) with time/prevailing condition, other factors likely to have tangible
influence on behaviour and therefore any evaluation of these types of cold mix materials
are likely to include:
• timing of the mixing processes (including sequence, timing and period for additive
addition and mixing);
• conditions during the mixing process (including material temperature and moisture
contents, as well as ambient temperature and humidity);
• compaction process (including timing relative to mixing, and the actual mode of
compaction);
• test process (including timing relative to mixing/compaction and test method).
This last factor again merits further discussion. While tests such as UCS and ITS are used
widely, they were developed (together with their standardisation) for conventional
stabilised materials which, as noted above, are likely to be considerably less sensitive to
the various factors that contribute to the difficulties of evaluating the materials under
discussion.
Strength testing is just one aspect of evaluating a material’s fitness for purpose. For
conventional stabilised materials, in which engineering properties remain constant (for
practical purposes) or for which there is an entrenched understanding of such change
(specifically concrete), there are also well established relationships of strength with other
key engineering properties such as stiffness and durability, and with subsequent
performance in the particular field application. Generally then, standardised strength
testing is used as a simple and robust indicator of the material’s suitability for these cases.
What should not be ignored is that strength testing is inherently variable, whether in
uniaxial compression or indirect tension for example, due in considerable part to the fact
that the measured strength is largely governed by the weakest element of the material
under test. While the degree of variability in strength testing has been found acceptable for
conventional materials evaluations, there is little doubt that the variability for these specific
cold mix bitumen treated materials (characterised by very low binder contents and
properties that change with time/prevailing conditions) will be substantially greater.
Consequently there is also the likelihood that interpretation of strength test results, based
on limited numbers of specimens more appropriate to conventional materials, could be
spurious and further contribute to difficulty in rational evaluation.
This would be in addition to any variability that may be incurred due to the influence of time
at test: at early ages particularly, the difference in age of, say, 68 hours to 76 hours for a
nominal three day test might give significant variation (e.g. for hypothetical specimens
tested early or late in a working day, when manufactured in the middle of the day).
142
4. DISCUSSION
The basis for this study was concern that laboratory results inconsistent with field
behaviour were being reported for bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen treated
roadbase materials. This cast some doubt on the applicability of current laboratory curing
regimes, and the objective of the study was to evaluate and recommend most appropriate
accelerated laboratory curing methods. It became apparent, however, that there is a larger
underlying problem: apparent not least due to the simple fact that even after years of
monitoring, evaluation and in depth studies, such a concern is still to the fore.
Consequently the main thrust of the study became a quest for the reason (or reasons) that
there was still uncertainty, from the pragmatic stance that the addition of familiar additives
to commonplace aggregate should not result in unusual behaviour without rational
explanation.
In reviewing the treatment process various factors were identified that, in the author’s view,
are likely to have some influence on the behaviour of the treated material as outlined in
section 3. Variation, or inconsistency, in any of these variables could certainly contribute to
difficulties in interpreting results especially if, as seems to be the present case, their
possible influence is not considered.
In addition there seems to be fairly compelling evidence that, certainly in the case of the
longer-established bitumen-emulsion treatment, the binding matrix formed is ostensibly
greater than the sum of its components. This seems especially true if a small amount of
cement is available, but it is not clear whether or not the absence of cement (or other
active filler component, such as lime) still gives similar beneficial behaviour regarding long-
term improvement in strength and stiffness.
In the author’s view, it should simply be acknowledged that the mixes produced from the
earliest days therefore inadvertently provided a “magic” recipe adopted for subsequent
work, which has been used extensively in South Africa, and even adapted to foamed
bitumen applications. Thus the binder matrix produced in the pioneering applications was,
in effect, an amalgam that possessed properties from an engineering standpoint that are
more desirable than the component materials alone. While this was unexpected and
therefore fortuitous, it is also clear that the
relative proportions of the bitumen-emulsion,
cement
and water (both in the emulsion and any free water in the mix) are important.
Over the years, the successful performance of these ETBs provided the impetus for
successive attempts to develop rational methods for their wider application. This study
provides continued witness to the fact that, for all the intensive research work that has
taken place during the past 15 years or so, there are still inexplicable gaps in our
knowledge of the fundamental behaviour.
This is viewed as attributable in part at least to practitioners having an inherent resistance
to, or unawareness of, the possibility that the binding matrix might in fact be a complex
hybrid combination that cannot be readily classified by either of our two conventional
categories of bituminous or cementitious behaviour. It has been further complicated by
factors such as those outlined earlier which, as indicated, are likely to have rather more
influence on variability of these types of material than for conventional stabilised materials.
However, regardless of the exact process that takes place after mixing, the critical aspects
regarding reliable characterisation of the treated material which must be taken into account
in the laboratory are:
143
• engineering properties are not constant, and seemingly improve over time;
• numerous factors influence the degree and rate of change in properties, with
prevailing temperature and internal moisture condition/external humidity being
most critical;
• the addition of small amounts of cement (up to 1% by mass) to bitumen-emulsion
treated materials seems reasonably common practice that arose initially from
earliest applications when it was used as an aid to breaking of the emulsion;
• the practice of cement addition to foamed bitumen treated material seems to
have carried over from the bitumen-emulsion;
• additive quantities are very low in comparison with traditional stabilisation norms.
Each of these factors carries potentially significant implication in terms of mixing,
compacting, and evaluating the treated materials that laboratory processing must address.
It is also implicit that, in order to ensure that any laboratory testing is in fact meaningful, it
should be based on samples that best represent field conditions. While it is impossible to
replicate actual field conditions, it is nonetheless absolutely essential (initially, at least) to
minimise any divergence and especially in those aspects likely to be of greatest
significance on probable performance.
Once clearer understanding is developed that enables the influence of the various factors
to be rationally quantified, then a true standardised laboratory process can be introduced.
This will ensure that laboratory quantification of these treated material types is repeatable,
reproducible, and allows selection of optimal mix design to provide required field
performance with minimal (or known) risk of unforeseen failure.
At this stage, it is the author’s belief that many of the possible factors that are likely to
influence behaviour of these types of treated material have not been systematically
quantified and this is contributing to the current situation of some confusion and,
ostensibly, spurious performance being observed. Amongst these factors, laboratory
curing is viewed as just one component that needs addressing.
In moving forward, and as proposed in the following section, a “back-to-basics” approach
is advocated. This should provide a sound basis by which to assess the importance of the
various factors outlined here, and on which to determine what governs the behaviour of
these materials and how best to optimise them.
5. THE WAY AHEAD: RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper has drawn attention to a number of aspects in the evaluation of bituminous cold
mix roadbase materials, as typically used in South Africa, which it is suggested are likely to
be a factor in making rational assessment difficult if not addressed in a consistent and
uniform manner.
These have been identified from consideration of fundamental processes that will occur in
treatment of a parent material with small quantities of additives, and in the context of the
known behaviour of these types of treated materials. Specifically this relates to the time-
/prevailing condition-dependent changes in engineering properties that are well
documented as taking place for bitumen-emulsion treated roadbases.
While such changes are also reported for foamed bitumen treated materials, the situation
is not as clear since the service track record is considerably shorter, and there is doubt
that the underlying processes can be similar. This, however, once again highlights the fact
144
that there are gaps in our knowledge base at this time, and emphasises the need to
carefully address and quantify the influence of those components identified here.
Table 1 attempts to summarise the key elements that are regarded as likely to have
particular impact in any laboratory evaluation, categorised under mixing, compaction,
curing, and testing (designated “Primary Activity”). The “Aspect” designation identifies the
specific part of the activity, with the “Initial Objective” indicating what is viewed as the
immediate/fundamental need. The last two columns (“Comment” and “Scope for further
work”) give a cursory overview of the rationale and future thrusts.
For practical purposes any evaluation will hinge on the method of assessment (testing)
and, although there are important recommendations regarding compaction and curing
methods, it is the testing component that is the most significant. Consequently this paper
concludes with more detailed discussion of the proposed approach.
145
Table 1: Summary of identified needs for key elements in the evaluation of bituminous cold mix treated roadbase materials
Primary Activity
Aspect
Initial Objective
Comment
Scope for further work
Materials
To ensure materials used in the laboratory are directlycomparable with those in the field.
Grade, quality and application mode of additives.Special attention to classification, moisture condition and grading of parentmaterial.In particular, no removal of large size fractions unless consideredunrepresentative of typical field condition.
Optimisation of additive types, esp. type, grade anddilution of bitumen-emulsion (eg, anionic/cationic,slow setting/medium setting), and active filler (eg,cement class, strength, lime usage, etc). Efficacyof treatment approach for different types of parentmaterial.
Process
To replicate the timing of additive addition to represent mostlikely prevailing field conditions.
Timing of active filler inclusion relative to bituminous additive (emulsion orfoam) addition likely to have significant influence on binder matrixdevelopment.
Optimisation of timing of mixing process for mostbeneficial results.
Conditions
To best replicate the internal moisture, external humidityand temperature of most likely prevailing field conditions.
Each of these factors is known to influence the rate and extent of change inengineering property development, and by inference the action/reactiontaking place in the binder matrix.
Quantification of the specific influence of moisture,humidity and temperature on matrix and materialproperties.
Compaction
Method
To simulate probable field compaction and final density.
Size and distribution of voids is viewed as critical to binder matrix
development and subsequent engineering properties.Standard impact hammer compaction methods are seen as inappropriate forthese types of materials, and quite unlikely to achieve a compacted conditionapproximating field condition.A combination of vibration and load will normally better approximate fieldcompaction, and laboratory application of a vibrating hammer (eg, Kangotype) to achieve refusal density is recommended.
Comparison of laboratory compaction methodswith field to determine most appropriate method forstandard laboratory processing.
Curing
Method
To simulate probable field curing condition for directcomparison of laboratory and field results, thus developing asound initial basis for laboratory/field correlation.
Ambient curing of laboratory samples in conditions similar to the fieldapplication is the only way to ensure reasonable direct correlation initially,and allow rational interpretation of results.
Determination of laboratory accelerated curingregime that gives most reliable and consistentcorrelation with ambient/field curing, thereforeproviding a sound basis for comparison ofalternative mixes.
Testing
Method
To determine fundamental engineering properties (ie,stiffness and strength) in a reliable method using simple,widely available laboratory equipment*.To systematically monitor time at test (within the nearesthour for early testing especially).
Material stiffness (ie, "elastic" modulus) is fundamental to the layerbehaviour in pavements under traffic loading. Strength (as limiting stress orstrain) is used as an indicator to confirm likely satisfactory long-termperformance. Derivation of stress-strain response (from load-displacement)on a routine evaluation basis using readily available equipment will rapidlyenhance our knowledge base. It will specifically provide a more rationalbasis for pavement design.Correlation of laboratory response with field measurement of nominal layerstiffness (derived from surface deflection bowl) will provide an invaluable
basis for pavement design.An initial approach recommended for pavement design would be toacknowledge that these materials are primarily modified aggregates, andbase pavement design on the nominal stiffness modulus of the parentaggregate. Since these material types (as typically used in South Africa)have engineering properties that only seem to improve, this would provide aconservative basis that can be refined as more data become available.
Detemination of stiffness and strength changesover time in prevailing conditions for a wide rangeof material types, from laboratory and fieldmonitoring, is regarded as the ultimate key inenabling reliable pavement design and providingmix design criteria. Once standardisation orconformity in the other aspects mentioned above isreached, this then will be the basis of ourknowledge base. It will be the main thrust then fordeveloping reliable performance models thatshould ideally accommodate parent material type,grading (or packing potential), additive types andrelative proportions, nominal ambient conditions,etc, etc. It should cover use of simpler indicatortests for determining key characteristics. Scopefor further work is significant.
* Note: see text for recommendation.
Mixing
146146
The bitumen-emulsion and foamed bitumen treated materials should be viewed, initially at
least, as improved aggregate rather than a stabilised material. This acknowledges the
nature of these bituminous cold mix materials as adopted in South Africa, the relatively
slow improvement in engineering properties with time, and the fact that all available
evidence indicates that any improvements in engineering properties are only beneficial in
terms of performance.
For pavement design, provided the material has adequate inherent strength to resist
crushing or breakdown under traffic loading, and is sufficiently well compacted to minimise
further significant compaction under traffic, its successful application stems from its ability
to spread the traffic load. This is a direct function of its stiffness and consequently its ability
to attenuate the effects of traffic load stresses with depth.
The pavement design process is then used to determine the layer thickness required that
will ensure that stresses transmitted will not cause overstressing or unacceptable
deterioration to the underlying layer(s).
While it is normal in routine laboratory testing to use some measure of strength (or ultimate
strain) for materials evaluation and acceptance, it must be recognised that this does not
characterise a material: it is simply an indicator that, over the years, has been correlated
with performance of the material in the particular application. It does, of course, also imply
certain expectation that other key engineering properties (particularly stiffness and
durability) are satisfactory.
As touched on earlier, it should also be recognised that ultimate strength/strain values can
(and invariably will) be far more variable for most materials, and especially for these
treated materials, than stiffness. Conventionally defined by the nominal linear portion, or
initial tangent modulus of a stress-strain response, stiffness is a composite property that
will derive primarily from the parent material and binder matrix. Ultimate strength/strain will
be governed by the weakest element of the specimen which is inherently a more variable
property.
For these types of treated material, in which key properties such as stiffness and strength
change with time/prevailing conditions, and for which any correlation of these two distinct
properties is likely to be influenced by various of the factors discussed earlier, it is evident
that any attempt to characterise using just, say, a strength indicator is unlikely to be
conclusive or reliable.
The “back-to-basics” approach proposed is therefore aimed at determining laboratory
indications of both the fundamental engineering characteristics of stiffness and strength on
a routine basis that will rapidly enhance our knowledge base. Primary amongst the needs
will be better understanding of how these properties are influenced by prevailing
conditions, and to enable direct correlations with field indications of stiffness and strength
development.
The laboratory testing will consequently require some determination of stress/strain
response (from load/displacement), allowing determination of a stiffness value, as well as
strength/strain parameters that may include ultimate (failure) values.
“Back-to-basics” is founded on the fundamental understanding that satisfactory long-term
performance of pavement layer materials can only be approached if induced stresses (and
strains) principally from traffic loading are kept well within the nominal elastic portion of the
147
stress-strain response. The extent of the initial nominally linear portion of the stress-strain
response, by which the stiffness is characterised, is therefore also important.
For these types of material it seems apparent that both the stiffness and the extent of the
linear portion, defined by a stress and corresponding strain value representing the end of
the linear “elastic” portion, increase with time/prevailing condition which undoubtedly
contributes to the longevity observed. The laboratory test will therefore enable these
values to be monitored and the effects of various factors on the behaviour to be
determined. It is considered that these stress/strain values should provide more reliable
criteria for characterisation than ultimate strength (or strain) values.
In trying to identify suitable equipment that is, or could be, widely available for stiffness
testing it became evident that the test frame used for CBR tests is most likely candidate: it
provides for the application of sufficient load and measurement of displacement, and is
available in virtually all materials testing laboratories. In addition, an inherent requirement
of the proposed test is that as much of the specimen as possible should contribute to the
test result, in order to get a more representative response and minimise fundamental
variability. This points clearly to uniaxial compression testing of unconfined specimens, in
which the stress-strain response is determined from applied load and displacement.
It is consequently proposed that specimens should be formed in the CBR mould (diameter
152.4 mm) and to the maximum thickness of 152.4 mm, using the proposed method of
compaction (Table 1). This thickness is, of course, typical of constructed layer thickness.
Specimens will be extruded just prior to test and tested unconfined, using a 152.4 mm
diameter load platen. Loading would then also be applied in the same direction, relative to
the compaction, as the field traffic loading.
The use of this specimen size would be considered to provide a sufficiently large sample
size to be representative and also reduce possible effects of inherent variability. It is also
seen as allowing for the full material grading, without artificially influencing compactibility
by taking out or further breaking down, for example, particles above 19 mm. At worst, it
would be recommended that only the occasional particles above, say, 50 mm should be
removed prior to compaction.
By using the CBR test frame, it is further proposed that the same standard loading rate
(1.27 mm/minute) be adopted to simplify the test process. The stiffness value deduced
from the load/displacement response should allow reliable linear correlation with, for
example, layer stiffness from field measurements or cores. Correlation of strength
parameters should be similarly robust.
The main drawback foreseen, especially where test frames are computer controlled and
incorporate load cells and LVDTs, is the probable need to take readings at a higher rate
than used for conventional CBR testing (every 0.635 mm). This sampling rate may or may
not be readily changed depending on the software. Ideally a full load/displacement
response would be required in order to characterise the initial tangent modulus, but it
would be anticipated that readings would be required approximately at least every 5
seconds or 0.1 mm displacement during the first minute. Manually it should be possible to
take measurements with coordination of load and displacement readings from respective
dial gauges.
Subsequent determination of nominal stiffness value would require manual interpretation
of the load-displacement response, and a template approach as illustrated in Figure 1
would be recommended. Values of limiting stresses and strains would again require
148
manual interpretation, and simple calculation from the appropriate load and displacement
values.
In any laboratory testing that follows the proposed approach it is also advocated that, prior
to specimen extrusion for the unconfined compression test, measurement of CBR be taken
(only to a penetration of 2.54 mm) as a simple indicator test. While this is not a direct
measurement of stiffness or strength, and is unlikely to provide a unique linear correlation
with these properties since these are likely to be material and application specific, it would
provide additional insight and possibly aid in developing a simpler evaluation method.
E-value template for compression testing
(152.4 mm diameter specimen)
E=100 Mpa
E=200 MPa
300 MPa
400 MPa
500600
700
800
900
E=1000 MPa
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.
Vertical displacement (mm)
Load (kN)
N.B. Interpretation of E value should be based on slope of
nominal linear portion of load/displacement response.
Solid lines represent 150 mm specimen height
Dotted lines for 140 mm specimen height
0
Figure 1: Example of template for interpretation of stiffness modulus value
The final recommendations, which could be viewed as most contentious, are twofold and
must be kept within the context of these specific roadbase material applications. These are
best broadly described as having residual bitumen contents of 1 to 2% by mass, and will
often include a cement addition of up to 1%.
The first is based on the earlier observation that the beneficial performance of bitumen-
emulsion treated roadbases seems disproportionate when compared with the individual
additives and treatment levels, leading to the conclusion that the specific composition of
the binder matrix must be a key factor.
In the interests of both attaining good performance and rapidly building the knowledge
base, it is therefore recommended that a cement inclusion of 1% by mass be specified in
all current applications.
It must be emphasised most strongly that the use of higher cement content is not
advocated (certainly at this stage), not least because the long-term improvement in
properties found for bitumen-emulsion treated bases is not associated with any of the
characteristic problems of cement-treated or cement stabilised roadbase material
(especially environment- or load-induced cracking, and subsequent deterioration).
149
Consequently simply increasing cement content, which is likely to induce this type of
undesirable distress and unsatisfactory behaviour, should be avoided.
This recommendation is simply made as an expedient in best trying to emulate past
successful applications. This quantity can be considered an amount sufficient to be mixed
relatively uniformly, representative of present and past practice, and indisputably the most
likely component that could contribute to long-term strength/stiffness improvement. Later
study should be able to optimise the binder composition once a better understanding of the
mechanism is developed.
The last main recommendation, again flagged in the earlier discussion, is based on the
measurement and application of material stiffness as a fundamental property for pavement
design purposes. In most simplistic terms, and on the assumption that exceeding a critical
strength/strain is not a limiting factor, the stiffness of the pavement layer material will
govern its application either as a main structural layer (base) or as a support layer such as
the subbase. As essentially a modified aggregate material, the stiffness of a cold mix
bituminous-treated material will initially be similar to the untreated parent material. If it
does indeed gain stiffness and strength with time and subject to the prevailing conditions,
then it would be expected to improve its traffic carrying capacity.
Rate of change of these properties with time will depend on ambient conditions applying,
and it is almost inevitable that each application will have a unique engineering property
development. This will be due to numerous factors, including region/climate, season,
specific material type, additives, binder composition, etc, which will influence moisture
dispersion, emulsion breaking, and binder matrix development.
The structural application of a cold mix bituminous-treated road base material in a
pavement, similar to its unbound parent aggregate, will be governed primarily by its
stiffness. Thus a good quality unbound aggregate with a relatively high layer stiffness
(typically class G1 or G2) is suited to higher traffic and serviceability applications, whereas
a lower quality (for example G3 or G4) would be satisfactory for lower traffic, lower
serviceability applications.
Since the stiffness of the treated material in this case is subject to increase (at a rate that
will depend on prevailing conditions), it is proposed that a design stiffness (and probably
rate of stiffness development in the anticipated field conditions) be adopted as a mix
design criterion.
The original discussion regarding accelerated laboratory curing highlighted the fact that the
“target” condition (after curing) was not well defined. If the target is a laboratory stiffness
value that relates to a field requirement, firstly a direct check on likely compliance can be
obtained from laboratory testing of samples cured under ambient conditions. This will
establish whether or not an acceptable stiffness value should be obtainable from a
particular design mix and, if so, within what period.
A mix that may reach the target stiffness, but over a protracted period, would be regarded
as less satisfactory compared with one that meets the target relatively quickly, say within
one or two weeks which would be a realistic period in terms of the construction cycle.
In comparing two mixes that each meet a target stiffness within an acceptable period, it
would then be realistic to select the one that seems to offer the better longer-term
likelihood of continued improvement in stiffness and strength.
150
An appropriate laboratory accelerated curing regime can then be developed that best
simulates the stiffness changes, but over a relatively short period.
For selection of “target” stiffness values, an obvious start point would be to adapt values
that would be associated in pavement analysis with the unbound layer materials best
representing the parent material. Immediate needs would then be to correlate the
laboratory stiffness values derived from the unconfined compressive testing. Clearly, a
laboratory study that parallels actual field construction, enabling direct comparison of, say,
laboratory stiffness determination from cores (or laboratory specimens made during
construction) with field values backcalculated from deflection testing of the layer made at
the same time, would be ideal.
Proposed test periods for initial laboratory studies, in which the changes in engineering
properties are monitored and stiffness comparisons of laboratory and field are made, are:
• 72 hours (± 1 hour), 168 hours (± 4 hours), 28 days, 14 weeks, 52 weeks for ambient
curing;
• 24 hours (± 15 minutes), 72 hours (± 1 hour), and 168 hours (± 4 hours) for
accelerated curing;
with timing based on time at final compaction in the mould. These periods are proposed as
both practical and convenient for subsequent analysis, with the 14 and 52 week tests
regarded as essential in developing our knowledge base at this stage. Exact time of test
(along with the mixing and compaction times) should be recorded as a matter of routine
and these parameters used in any time-based analysis.
From the previous review, selection of an accelerated curing regime is somewhat unclear.
It would seem judicious to adopt the previously recommended accelerated curing regime
for bitumen-emulsion treated roadbase materials as a reference point (Sabita, 1999). The
author’s recommendation for an alternative would, however, be 60ºC oven curing directly
from compaction, the first 24 hours in the mould, then demoulded for subsequent curing
and with no attempt to restrict moisture movement by either polythene bagging or any
other method.
This approach has the perceived merit of using a temperature comparable with surface
temperatures that can be commonly reached in South Africa in direct sunlight. Thus this
cannot be considered excessive (even without clarity on the complex internal processes
taking place during curing), yet should certainly accelerate overall development of stiffness
and strength. During the first 24 hours, moisture movement is restricted by the mould to
only upwards, which would certainly be the likely case for field applications during the first
few days at least, whereas subsequently the specimen is allowed to dry (cure) as rapidly
as possible in the curing conditions.
Another aspect that should be incorporated in any laboratory study, whether ambient or
accelerated curing is used, is monitoring nominal moisture change from direct weighing of
specimens (whether in or out of the mould) from compaction. Oven drying of sample
material from tested specimens should also be undertaken as a matter of course. This will
assist in developing our understanding of the influence of moisture content on measured
properties.
In closing, it must be clearly understood that any “standard” accelerated curing regime, by
definition, will lead to repeatable and reproducible results. In other words, no matter where
151
a compliance test is undertaken on the exact same materials mixed, compacted and cured
identically, the result should be identical.
Since the properties of the material in any real application in the field will change in a
distinctly non-standard way (according to the vagaries of the numerous factors outlined
previously that are likely to have an influence), it will then be recognised that the main
thrust has to be development of meaningful correlations to enable a standard test result to
be interpreted realistically for the regional/climatic application. To emphasise this need it
can be readily envisaged that an identical mix constructed in two wholly dissimilar regions,
say very hot and arid compared with cold and wet, will respond in quite different ways and,
very likely, behave and perform quite differently in a road. While not certain of the likely
significance for the range of South African conditions, there is little doubt that this factor
needs to be accommodated in future rational developments.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The support of Gautrans (Gauteng Department of Public Transport, Roads and Works) in
sponsoring the study on which this paper is based is gratefully acknowledged, and the
Director of CSIR Transportek is thanked for permission to publish this paper.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Asphalt Academy. Interim Technical Guideline: The design and use of foamed
bitumen treated materials. Asphalt Academy, Technical Guideline TG2, Pretoria,
2002.
[2] Bergh, AO. Private communication. 2005.
[3] Bondietti, M, D Murphy, K. Jenkins and R. Burger. Research on the stabilisation of
two different materials using bitumen emulsion and cement. CAPSA’04, Sun City,
South Africa, September 2004.
[4] Brown, SF and D Needham. A study of cement modified bitumen emulsion mixtures.
Paper to the 2000 Annual Meeting of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists.
[5] Hodgkinson, A and AT Visser. The role of fillers and cementitious binders when
recycling with foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion. CAPSA’04, Sun City, South
Africa, September 2004.
[6] Houston, M and F Long. Corrrelations between different ITS and UCS test protocols
for foamed bitumen treated materials. CAPSA’04, Sun City, South Africa, September
2004.
[7] Jenkins, K.J. Mix design considerations for cold and half-cold bituminous mixes with
emphasis on foamed bitumen. Ph.D Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa,
2000.
[8] Jenkins, KJ, S Robroch, MG Henderson, J Wilkinson and AAA Molenaar. Advanced
testing for cold recycling treatment selection on N7 near Cape Town. CAPSA’04, Sun
City, South Africa, September 2004.
[9] Jostein, M. The use of cold bitumen stabilized base course mixes in Norway. Baltic
Road Association, seminar session B2, 2000.
[10] Kekwick, SV. Accelerated Laboratory Curing of Bitumen-Emulsion and Foamed
Bitumen Treated Specimens: Review of Current Practice. Gauteng Department of
Public Transport, Roads and Works. CSIR Contract Report CR-2004/55, October
2004.
152
[11] Marais, CP and MI Tait. Pavements with bitument emulsion treated bases: proposed
materialspecifications, mix design criteria and structural design procedures for
southern African conditions. CAPSA’89, Swaziland, 1989.
[12] Potti, JJ, D Lesueur, and B Eckmann. Towards a rational mix design method for cold
bituminous mixes. The Optel contribution. European Roads Review, Special Issue,
RGRA2. 2002.
[13] South African Bitumen Association. ETB – The design and use of emulsion-treated
bases. Sabita Manual 21, Cape Town, 1999.
[14] South African Bitumen Association. GEMS – The design and use of granular emulsion
mixes. Sabita Manual 14, Cape Town, 1993.
153